Amount and distribution of forest cover 50
Stand structure 51
Species composition 52
Invasive exotic species 54

Conclusion 56

4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF AUTECOLOGY 57

Amphibian woodland breeding ponds 63
Landbird migration stopover areas 64
Reptile habitat 64
Wild turkey winter range 65

Specialized wildlife habitats 65

Mast-producing trees 66
Cavity trees 66
Stick nest trees 67
Supercanopy trees 67
Downed woody debris 67
Shorelines, springs, and seeps 68

Habitats of species of conservation concern 68

Rare/uncommon tree species and associations 68
Southern flying squirrel 69
Woodland raptors 69
Forest interior birds 70

Animal movement corridors 70

TABLE 4.1.1

SECTION 5: ASSESSING STAND AND SITE CONDITIONS 99
Introduction 100

Stocking 107
Structure 110

Uneven-aged stands 110

Stocking 110
Structure 112
Residual basal area—how much to leave 113
Residual basal area—how to distribute it across diameter-classes 114
Which trees to cut; which trees to leave 117

5.3 ANALYZING QUALITY OF TREES IN THE STAND 119
Potential tree vigor 119

Crown position 119
Crown size 120
Crown architecture 120
Crown quality 121
Bark character 121
Degree of competition 122
Marking to improve vigor 122

Potential tree risk 122
Current tree quality 126

Tree defect classification 126

Summary of potential vigor, risk, and quality discussion 134

Tree classification systems 134

SECTION 6: SILVICULTURAL GUIDELINES BY FOREST COVER TYPES 139
Introduction 140

Linking this guide to other OMNR silviculture guides 140

Hardwood forest cover types 141

Dry-fresh deciduous forest ecosite (FOD4) 144
Dry-fresh sugar maple deciduous forest ecosite (FOD5) 145
Fresh-moist sugar maple forest ecosite (FOD7) 146
Dry-fresh hardwood-hemlock ecosite (FOM3) 147

Changes since the presettlement era 147

Different species composition 147
Structural differences 148

Choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 150

Autecology of sugar maple 150
Site potential or capability 154
Current stand structure, composition, and condition 154
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage values 155
Other considerations 158
Recommended silvicultural systems for upland tolerant hardwoods 158

Single-tree selection system 161

Introduction 161
Assessing stand potential for management by single-tree selection 161
Concerns with single-tree selection 161
Silvicultural objective(s) for the forest stand 162
Target residual stand basal area and distribution by diameter-class 163
Determining the target basal area and amount to thin 168
Crop-tree selection and marking 169
Treatment of polewood stems 169
Treatment of advanced regeneration 169
Timing of operations 169
Specific wildlife habitat concerns 170
Suggested modifications for unique stand conditions 170
Management of tolerant hardwood stands to provide old-growth characteristics 170
Management of young hardwood stands to produce high quality sawlogs 171
Management of degraded tolerant hardwood stands that have been grazed by livestock 174

Group selection system 176

Introduction 176
Harvest regulation 177
Size of openings 180
Number of openings at each periodic harvest 184
Shape of openings 184
Location of openings 184
Thinning between openings 185
Treatment of advanced regeneration 186
Timing of operations 186
Specific wildlife habitat concerns 186
Follow-up requirements 186
Suggested modifications for unique stand conditions 187
Management of tolerant hardwood stands to provide some larger canopy openings 187
Management of mid-tolerant regeneration in areas with high deer density 188

Uniform shelterwood system 189

Introduction 189
Silvicultural objecti ve(s) 189
Specific wildlife habitat concerns 190
Regeneration (seed) cut 190
Seed-tree selection 190
Seedbed preparation 191
Controlling competing vegetation 191
Removal cut(s) 192

6.2 UPLAND OAKS 195
Introduction 195

Dry-fresh oak deciduous forest ecosite (FOD1) 195
Dry-fresh oak-maple-hickory deciduous forest ecosite (FOD2) 196
Dry oak-pine mixed forest ecosite (FOM1) 197
Dry-fresh white pine-maple-oak mixed forest ecosite (FOM2) 197
Carolinian species associations 198

Changes since the presettlement era 198
Choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 199

Autecology of oaks 199
Site potential or capability 203
Presence of advanced regeneration 203
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage value 204
Other considerations 205
Recommended silvicultural treatments for upland oaks 205
Crop-tree thinning 207

When to begin thinning 207
Crown touching method 207
Silvicultural objective 208
Number of crop trees to leave 209
Selecting crop trees 209
Stump sprout thinning 211
Thinning with use of stocking guides 212

Regeneration treatments 213

Uniform shelterwood system 213
Silvicultural objective 213
Regeneration cut(s) 214
Seedbed preparation 216
Prescribed Fire 216
Advanced regeneration 218
Removal cut 219
Suggested modifications for unique stand conditions 220
Management of upland oak stands by group shelterwood system 220

Group selection system 222

Silvicultural objective 222
Regulation of periodic harvests 222
Size of openings 223
Shape of openings 224
Number of openings at each periodic harvest 224
Harvesting and seedbed preparation of openings 224
Treatment between group openings 224
Monitoring regeneration in the openings 225
Vegetation management in the openings 225
Thinning the regenerated saplings in the openings 225
Planting group openings 225
Subsequent group opening treatments 226
Suggested modifications for unique stand conditions 226
Management of oak regeneration in areas with high deer density 226

6.3 LOWLAND HARDWOODS AND SWAMPS 227
Introduction 227

Fresh-moist sugar maple deciduous forest ecosite (FOD6) 227
Fresh-moist lowland deciduous forest ecosite (FOD7) 228
Fresh-moist oak-maple-hickory deciduous forest ecosite (FOD9) 229
Swamp ecosites 229

Changes since the presettlement era 231
Choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 231

Autecology of lowland hardwood species 232
Site potential or capability 236
Current stand composition, structure, and condition 238
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage values 238
Other considerations 239
Recommended silvicultural systems for lowland hardwoods 240

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Crop-tree thinning 242

Response of even-aged lowland hardwood stands to precommercial thinning 242
Coppice thinning prescriptions 243
Commercial thinning with use of stocking guides 244

Regeneration treatments 244

Uniform shelterwood system 244
Group selection system 244
Techniques for encouraging and managing coppice growth 245

6.4 EARLY SUCCESSIONAL HARDWOODS 247
Introduction 247

Dry-fresh white birch-poplar-conifer mixed forest ecosite (FOM5) 247
Fresh-moist poplar-white birch mixed forest ecosite (FOM8) 247
Dry-fresh poplar-white birch deciduous forest ecosite (FOD3) 248
Fresh-moist poplar-sassafras deciduous forest ecosite (FOD8) 248

Changes since the presettlement era 249
choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 250

Autecology of trembling and large-tooth aspen 250
Site potential or capability 253
Current stand composition, structure, and condition 253
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage values 253
Other considerations 254

Managing early successional hardwoods 254

1. Dominance of early successional species in the stand 256
2. Stand age and thinning to maximize growth and yield 256
3. Choosing whether to maintain the early successional species in the stand 257
4. Managing succession to a tolerant hardwood, pine, or cedar forest cover type 259
5. Managing stands with a small early successional component 261

CONIFEROUS FOREST TYPES 263
Introduction 263

Autecology of eastern white pine 267
Autecology of red pine 269
Site potential or capability 271
Current stand composition, structure, and condition 271
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage values 271
Other considerations 273

Managing white and red pine stands 274

1. Stand age 275
2a. Crop-tree management 275
2b. Density management diagrams 277
3. Stand species composition 278
4. Stand stocking influences choice of silvicultural system for regeneration 279
5a. Patch cut with seed trees 282
5b. Group selection 283
6. Managing white and red pine stands with a component of red and/or white oak 283

6.6 CEDARS AND CEDAR SWAMPS 285
Introduction 285

Dry-fresh cedar coniferous forest ecosite (FOC2) 285
Fresh-moist white cedar coniferous forest ecosite (FOC4) 286
Dry-fresh white cedar mixed forest ecosite (FOM4) 286
Fresh-moist white cedar-hardwood mixed forest ecosite (FOM7) 287
White cedar mineral mixed swamp ecosite (SWM1) 288
White cedar organic mixed swamp ecosite (SWM4) 288

EASTERN WHITE CEDAR 288
Changes since the presettlement era 288
Choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 289

Autecology of eastern white cedar 290
Site potential or capability 291
Current stand composition, structure, and condition 292
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage values 292
Other considerations 293

Managing eastern white cedar stands 293

Managing and regenerating even-aged stands 293
1. Site productivity and management options 295
2. Stand size and level of wildlife use 296
3. Stand age and choice of silvicultural treatment(s) 296
4. Stand size and choice of silvicultural system 297
5. Associated species and preparatory cuts 298
6. Regenerating stands by clearcutting 298
7 and 9. Managing residual stems in the clearcut system 300
8. Controlling competing tree species on newly established sites 301
10. Managing slash cover 301
11. Assessing the success of silvicultural operations 301
Managing and regenerating uneven-aged stands 302
Convert to an even-aged stand 302
Manage as an uneven-aged stand 302

EASTERN RED CEDAR 304
Changes since the presettlement era 304
Choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 304

Autecology of eastern red cedar 304
Current stand composition, structure, and condition 305
Wildife habitat and other natural heritage values 305
Stand potential or capability 306

Management of eastern red cedar stands 306

1. Eastern red cedar as a shelterwood for other species 306
2. Crop-tree management to optimize red cedar growth 307
3. Converting the stand back to an old field 307

6.7 HEMLOCK 309
Introduction 309

Fresh-moist hemlock coniferous forest ecosite (FOC3) 309
Fresh-moist hemlock mixed forest ecosite (FOM6) 310

Changes since the presettlement era 310
Choosing an appropriate silvicultural system 311

Autecology of hemlock 311
Site potential or capability 313
Current stand composition, structure, and condition 313
Wildlife habitat and other natural heritage values 313
Other considerations 314

Managing hemlock stands 314

Managing even-aged stands of hemlock 315
1. Hemlock size in the stand 315
2. Overstory presence and growth of seedling- or sapling-size hemlock 315
3. Stocking of overstory with seedling- and sapling-size hemlock 315
4. and 5. Stocking and vigor potential of overstory 317
6. and 7. Polewood stands 317
7. and 8. Sawlog stands 318
Managing uneven-aged stands of hemlock 320
Managing hemlock stands for old-growth features 321

SECTION 7: PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SILVICULTURAL TREATMENTS 323

Manual brushing tools 340
Motor-manual brushing tools 342
Manual/Motor-manual brushing techniques 343
Vegetative response to cutting 343
Response of woody plant species 343
Response of wild grape vines 347
Response of herbaceous species 347

Selectively applying herbicides 349

Herbicide use requirements 349
Mode of entry and action 352
Herbicide applicators 352
Herbicide application techniques 353
Vegetative response to herbicides 357

Recommended control treatments for most problematic invasive exotics 357

Avoiding injury to workers 366

Impacts and types of damage to forests 366

1. Wounds to larger residual trees 366
2. Damage to saplings and polewood 369
3. Damage to other vegetation 370
4. Damage to soils and water quality 371
5. Disturbance to wildlife 374
6. Other site impacts 375

Best management practices 375

1. Developing a pretreatment silvicultural prescription 375
2. Marking timber to be harvested 376
3. Marking and delineating sensitive environmental areas 377
4. Selecting a contractor 377
5. Negotiating a timber sales agreement 378
6. Forest access roads, skid trails, stream crossings, and landings 379
7. Harvest scheduling 382
8. Felling practices 385
9. Skidding practices 387
10. Rehabilitating skidding trails, roads, and landings after harvesting 388

Harvesting standards 389

Assessing harvest damage 389

Conclusions 391

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